All ICDP Publications with Abstracts
From parent-sysfolder "Publications" + 2 folder-levels deep
469.
Target delamination by spallation and ejecta dragging: An example from the Ries crater's periphery
Earth and Planetary Science Letters,
252
(1-2)
15-29
2006
Abstract: ▾ Subhorizontal shear planes (detachments) are observed in bedded limestones in the periphery of the Ries impact crater, Germany. These detachments occur at 0.8-1.8 crater radii distance from the crater center beneath deposits of the continuous ejecta blanket. Striations on detachment planes and offsets of markers indicate top-outward shearing with radial slip vectors. Detachments were found at depths between a few meters and more than 50 m beneath the target surface. The displacements along these faults range from meters to decameters and decrease with increasing depth and distance from the crater center. With increasing crater distance, detachment horizons tend to climb to shallower levels. Cross-cutting relationships to faults associated with the crater collapse indicate that detachment faulting started prior to the collapse but continued during crater modification. Numerical modeling of the cratering process shows that near-surface deformation outside the transient crater is induced by two separate mechanisms: (i) weak spallation by interference of shock and release waves near the target surface and (ii) subsequent dragging by the deposition of the ejecta curtain. Spallation causes an upward and outward directed motion of target material that increases in magnitude toward the target surface. It leads to decoupling of the uppermost target layers in the early cratering stage without totally disintegrating the rock. The subsequent arrival of the oblique impact shower of the ejecta curtain at the target surface delivers a horizontal momentum to the uppermost target area and results in a second horizontal displacement increment by dragging. With increasing depth this effect vanishes rapidly. Spallation decoupling and subsequent ejecta dragging of near-surface rocks is probably a general cratering mechanism around craters in layered targets with weak interbeds. © 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
468.
Structure of the San Andreas fault zone at SAFOD from a seismic refraction survey
Geophysical Research Letters,
33
(7)
2006
ISSN: 00948276Keywords:▾
Acoustic wave refraction; Earthquakes; Sedimentary rocks; Seismic prospecting; Seismic waves; Two dimensional; Velocity, San Andreas fault zone; Seismic refraction, Seismology, fault zone; San Andreas Fault; seismic refraction; seismic survey; travel time; upper crust
Abstract: ▾ Refraction traveltimes from a 46-km long seismic survey across the San Andreas Fault were inverted to obtain two-dimensional velocity structure of the upper crust near the SAFOD drilling project. The model contains strong vertical and lateral velocity variations from <2 km/s to ∼6 km/s. The Salinian terrane west of the San Andreas Fault has much higher velocity than the Franciscan terrane east of the fault. Salinian basement deepens from 0.8 km subsurface at SAFOD to ∼2.5 km subsurface 20 km to the southwest. A strong reflection and subtle velocity contrast suggest a steeply dipping fault separating the Franciscan terrane from the Great Valley Sequence. A low-velocity wedge of Cenozoic sedimentary rocks lies immediately southwest of the San Andreas Fault. This body is bounded by a steep fault just northeast of SAFOD and approaches the depth of the shallowest earthquakes. Multiple active and inactive fault strands complicate structure near SAFOD. Copyright 2006 by the American Geophysical Union.
467.
Structure of the San Andreas Fault at SAFOD from P-wave tomography and fault-guided wave mapping
Geophysical Research Letters,
33
(13)
2006
ISSN: 00948276Keywords:▾
Conformal mapping; Drilling; Seismic waves; Seismographs; Tomography; Velocity measurement, Fault-guided wave mapping; Low-velocity fault; Surface trace, Structural geology, earthquake; fault; fault zone; P-wave; San Andreas Fault; seismograph; tomography, California; North America; San Andreas; United States
Abstract: ▾ Fault-guided waves reveal a low-velocity fault segment a few hundred meters southwest of the main strand of the San Andreas Fault (SAf) system. In 2004, the San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth (SAFOD) Main Hole was drilled 2.5 km underground and 0.7 km west of the SAF surface trace. A 3-component, 4.5-Hz seismograph was installed near the bottom of this hole. This instrument recorded fault zone guided (Fg) waves originating from earthquakes along the main SAF ∼2 km north and 3 km south of the SAFOD site. This ∼5 km length corresponds to a distinctive low-velocity structure imaged in 2003 using microearthquakes recorded on the Pilot Hole array. Because this structure transmits Fg-waves from the main fault, it is probably connected to the main SAF and is most likely a major, unmapped fault. Copyright 2006 by the American Geophysical Union.
466.
Strain partitioning and stress rotation at the North Anatolian fault zone from aftershock focal mechanisms of the 1999 Izmit MW = 7.4 earthquake
Geophysical Journal International,
166
(1)
373-385
2006
ISSN: 0956540XKeywords:▾
aftershock; fault zone; focal mechanism; Kocaeli earthquake 1999; strain analysis; stress analysis, Anatolia; Eurasia; Turkey
Abstract: ▾ We investigate aftershock focal mechanisms of the Mw=7.4 Izmit earthquake of 1999 August 17, on the western North Anatolian fault zone (NAFZ). Spatial clustering and the orientation of 446 fault plane solutions are analysed. The Izmit mainshock occurred as a right-lateral slip on an EW-trending near-vertical fault plane. Aftershock clusters define four individual fault segments. Focal mechanisms surrounding the epicentres of the Izmit and subsequent Düzce mainshock (Mw= 7.1, 1999 November 12) indicate predominantly strike-slip but also normal faulting. Aftershocks in the area between the Izmit and Düzce segments are mainly related to EW-oriented normal faulting delineating a small pull-apart structure. Beneath the easternmost Sea of Marmara, alignments of aftershocks suggest branching of the NAFZ into three or more active segments that differ significantly in terms of their focal mechanism characteristics. The distribution of aftershock focal mechanisms corresponds to fault segmentation of the NAFZ in the Izmit-Düzce region produced by coseismic slip. Areas with large amounts of coseismic slip show aftershocks that are predominantly strike-slip, but low-slip barriers show mostly normal faulting aftershocks. Stress tensor inversions of the aftershock focal mechanisms show rotations of the local stresses following the Izmit mainshock. In the Izmit-Sapanca area, the maximum horizontal compressive stress axis is horizontally rotated counter-clockwise by 8° with respect to the coseismic and long-term regional stress field. Towards the eastern end of the rupture (Karadere-Düzce area), stresses are rotated clockwise. We conclude that the Izmit earthquake caused significant stress partitioning along the rupture. The direction of stress rotation is related to the orientation of the individual fault segments along the NAFZ. © 2006 The Authors Journal compilation © 2006 RAS.
465.
Stable isotopes in bulk carbonates and organic matter in recent sediments of Lake Qinghai and their climatic implications
Chemical Geology,
235
(3-4)
262 – 275
2006
ISSN: 00092541Keywords:▾
Asia; China; Eurasia; Far East; Qinghai; Qinghai Lake; carbon isotope; carbonate; climate conditions; dissolved inorganic carbon; lacustrine deposit; oxygen isotope; sediment chemistry; stable isotope; total organic carbon
Abstract: ▾ Multi-proxy indices on annual/decadal scales during the past 600 years were developed from the surface sediments of Lake Qinghai based on 210Pb and 137Cs geochronology. The δ13Ccarb, δ18Ocarb, and total carbonate content are consistent with one another in trends and their variations have been mainly ascribed to regional temperature. It is suggested that the strong evaporation contributes in modifying δ18O of lake water and δ13C of the dissolved inorganic carbon of the surface water, and appears to be responsible for the covariance between δ13Ccarb and δ18Ocarb. Photosynthesis of the aquatic plants appears to have played a significant role in determining δ15N of organic matter. The discrimination of 14N and 15N during photosynthesis may have triggered a positive linkage between temperatures and δ15Norg (after removal of the stratigraphic trend). Variations of total organic carbon (TOC), C/N ratio, and δ13Corg have been ascribed to local precipitation. TOC (after removal of the stratigraphic trend) is positively correlated with the C/N ratio (r = 0.45, α < 0.01), and negatively correlated with δ13C of organic matter (δ13Corg) (r = - 0.55, α < 0.01); while δ13Corg is negatively correlated with the C/N ratio (r = - 0.48, α < 0.01). The climatic significance of these multi-proxy indices has been verified by comparing with the meteorological records and the climates inferred from tree rings in adjacent regions. © 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
464.
Source scaling relationships of microearthquakes at Parkfield, CA, determined using the SAFOD pilot hole seismic array
Geophysical Monograph Series,
17081-90
2006
ISSN: 00658448
Publisher: Blackwell Publishing Ltd
DOI:10.1029/170GM10
Keywords:▾
Energy dissipation; Seismic waves; Seismology, Corner frequency; Large earthquakes; Micro-earthquakes; Moment independents; Scaling relationships; Source parameters; Spectral ratios; Tectonic earthquakes, Earthquakes
ISBN:
9781118666272; 9780875904351
Abstract: ▾ We estimate the source parameters of 34 microearthquakes at Parkfield, CA, ranging in size from M -0.2 to M 2.1, by analyzing seismograms recorded by the 32-level, 3-component seismic array installed in the SAFOD Pilot Hole. We succeeded in obtaining stable spectral ratios by stacking the ratios calculated from the moving windows taken along the record following the direct waves. These spectral ratios were modeled to determine seismic moments and corner frequencies assuming an omega-squared model. Static stress drops and apparent stresses of microearthquakes at Parkfield display moment-independent scaling in agreement with scaling laws reported for moderate and large earthquakes. It is likely that the dynamics of microearthquakes at Parkfield is macroscopically similar to that of larger tectonic earthquakes. © 2006 by the American Geophysical Union.
463.
Mineralogical characterization of protolith and fault rocks from the SAFOD Main Hole
Geophysical Research Letters,
33
(21)
2006
ISSN: 00948276Keywords:▾
Deformation; Reservoirs (water); Rheology; Rock drilling; Rocks; Serpentine, Fluid reservoirs; Mineralogical phases; Smectites; Washed cuttings, Geophysics, drilling; fault; lithology; mineralogy; protolith; rock; summer, California; North America; San Andreas; United States
Abstract: ▾ Washed cuttings provide a continuous record of the rocks encountered during drilling of the main hole of the San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth (SAFOD). Both protolith and fault rocks exhibit a wide variety of mineral assemblages that reflect variations in some combination of lithology, P-T conditions, deformation mechanisms, and fluid composition and abundance. Regions of distinct neomineralization bounded by faults may record alteration associated with fluid reservoirs confined by faults. In addition, both smectites occurring as mixed-layer phases and serpentine minerals are found in association with active strands of the San Andreas Fault that were intersected during drilling, although their rheological influence is not yet fully known. Faults containing these mineralogical phases are prime candidates for continuous coring during Phase 3 of SAFOD drilling in the summer of 2007. Copyright 2006 by the American Geophysical Union.
462.
HOTSPOT: The snake river scientific drilling project-tracking the yellowstone hotspot through space and time
Scientific Drilling,
1
(3)
56 – 57
2006
ISSN: 18163459461.
Mapping stress and structurally controlled crustal shear velocity anisotropy in California
Geology,
34
(10)
825-828
2006
ISSN: 00917613DOI:10.1130/G22309.1
Keywords:▾
Crustal stress; San Andreas fault; Seismic anisotropy, Anisotropy; Compressive stress; Earthquakes; Mapping; Seismic waves; Shear stress; Tectonics, Structural geology, active fault; deformation mechanism; earthquake; elastic property; fault plane; polarization; S-wave; San Andreas Fault; seismic anisotropy, California; North America; United States
Abstract: ▾ We present shear velocity anisotropy data from crustal earthquakes in California and demonstrate that it is often possible to discriminate structural anisotropy (polarization of the shear waves along the fabric of major active faults) from stress-induced anisotropy (polarization parallel to the maximum horizontal compressive stress). Stress directions from seismic stations located near (but not on) the San Andreas fault indicate that the maximum horizontal compressive stress is at a high angle to the strike of the fault. In contrast, seismic stations located directly on one of the major faults indicate that shear deformation has significantly altered the elastic properties of the crust, inducing shearwave polarizations parallel to the fault plane. © 2006 Geological Society of America.
460.
Chesapeake bay impact structure deep drilling project completes coring
Scientific Drilling,
1
(3)
34-37
2006
ISSN: 18168957459.
Downcore variations of total sulphur for VER98-1-14
458.
Downcore variations of the SIRM/$\kappa$LF for CON01-603-2, CON01-604-2, CON01-605-3, VER98-1-1, VER98
457.
Downcore variations of rock magnetic parameters (ARM, S-ratio and HIRM) for CON01-603-2 and VER98-1-14
456.
Down-core variations of the SIRM for CON01-603-2.
455.
Discovery of a 25-cm asteroid clast in the giant Morokweng impact crater, South Africa
Nature,
441
(7090)
203-206
2006
Abstract: ▾ Meteorites provide a sample of Solar System bodies and so constrain the types of objects that have collided with Earth over time. Meteorites analysed to date, however, are unlikely to be representative of the entire population and it is also possible that changes in their nature have occurred with time 1. Large objects are widely believed to be completely melted or vaporized during high-angle impact with the Earth2,3. Consequently, identification of large impactors relies on indirect chemical tracers, notably the platinum-group elements4. Here we report the discovery of a large (25-cm), unaltered, fossil meteorite, and several smaller fragments within the impact melt of the giant (>70 km diameter), 145-Myr-old Morokweng crater, South Africa. The large fragment (clast) resembles an LL6 chondrite breccia, but contains anomalously iron-rich silicates, Fe-Ni sulphides, and no troilite or metal. It has chondritic chromium isotope ratios and identical platinum-group element ratios to the bulk impact melt. These features allow the unambiguous characterization of an impactor at a large crater. Furthermore, the unusual composition of the meteorite suggests that the Morokweng asteroid incorporated part of the LL chondrite parent body not represented by objects at present reaching the Earth. © 2006 Nature Publishing Group.
454.
Depth versus age based on relative magnetic paleointensity correlations for all six investigated sites
453.
Deep water scientific drilling in Lake Malawi, Africa
Marine Technology Society Journal,
40
(1)
29-35
2006
ISSN: 00253324
Publisher: Marine Technology Society Inc.
Keywords:▾
Dynamic positioning; Environmental engineering; Lakes; Sediments, Geotechnical drilling; Pontoon surveys, Underwater drilling, Dynamic positioning; Environmental engineering; Lakes; Sediments; Underwater drilling, deep drilling; deep sea; drilling rig; environmental conditions, Africa; East African Lakes; Lake Malawi; Sub-Saharan Africa
Abstract: ▾ A new deep water drilling system was developed and applied to recover deeply buried sediments for scientific analyses in one of the deep rift valley lakes of Africa - Malawi. This approach overcame the difficulty of maintaining position over a drill site in a remotely located, large, deep lake. Environmental conditions in Lake Malawi are similar to deep water marine settings and, as such, a marine approach was adopted for the Lake Malawi Drilling Project (LMDP). In February and March 2005, the modified pontoon, Viphya, successfully completed a scientific drilling expedition in Lake Malawi. This expedition recovered core at depths greater than 380 m below lake-floor in water depths as great as 600 m. The major refit of Viphya included installation of a moonpool, bridge, crew accommodations, mess, washroom, power system, dynamic positioning, and a drilling system. These major modifications required early pontoon surveys and naval architectural analyses and design work prior to their commencement. The expedition also used modified scientific coring tools with a marine geotechnical drilling rig for the first time, resulting in excellent core recovery and quality.
452.
Dating of subduction and differential exhumation of UHP rocks from the Central Dabie Complex (E-China): Constraints from microfabrics, Rb–Sr and U–Pb isotope systems
Lithos,
89
(1)
174-201
2006
ISSN: 0024-4937Keywords:▾
UHP metamorphism, Exhumation, Deformation, U–Pb Rb–Sr Sm–Nd isotope dating, Titanite, Dabie Shan
Abstract: ▾ The correlation of deformation fabrics and metamorphic reactions with geochronologic data of UHP metamorphic rocks demonstrate that the multistage subduction and exhumation history of the Central Dabie Complex requires rapid subduction and rapid initial exhumation. Moreover, these data show that volume diffusion is not the major resetting mechanism of radiogenic isotope systems. Thus, our age data do not simply reflect a thermal/cooling history. In the investigated section, the maximum age for UHP is given by the 244±3 Ma (2σ) U–Pb age of a pre-UHP titanite phenocryst that survived UHP metamorphism and subsequent tectonometamorphic events. A minimum age for UHP is set by the 238±1 Ma (2σ) 238U–206Pb mineral isochron age of titanite and cogenetic epidote. These minerals formed from local partial melts during ascent and their age suggests fast exhumation and emplacement in the middle crust. In the period of ca. 238–218 Ma, the UHP terrain records HT metamorphism, local partial melting, and extensive pervasive strain below the eclogite (jd+grt) stability field. Exhumation was polyphase with a first phase of fast exhumation, succeeded by episodes of HT metamorphism and concomitant deformation at deep/mid crustal level between 238 and 218 Ma. Slow exhumation related to the final emplacement of tectonic units along greenschist facies shear zones did not cease before ca. 209–204 Ma. The resetting and homogenization of radiogenic isotope systems were aided by dissolution precipitation creep, which was the dominant deformation mechanism in quartz–feldspar rocks, in combination with fluid influx.
451.
Cratering history and Lunar Chrnology
Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry,
60519-596
2006
450.
Chicxulub impact event is Cretaceous/Paleogene boundary in age: New micropaleontological evidence
Earth and Planetary Science Letters,
249
(3-4)
241-257
2006
Abstract: ▾ High-resolution and quantitative planktic foraminiferal biostratigraphy from two SE Mexico stratigraphic sections (Bochil, Guayal) shows that the Chicxulub-related Complex Clastic Unit (CCU) is synchronous with the ejecta-rich airfall layer and the Cretaceous/Paleogene (K/Pg) catastrophic mass extinction horizon in the El Kef (Tunisia) and Caravaca (Spain) sections. The lowermost Danian H. holmdelensis subzone (= Biozone P0) was identified in both sections in a thin dark clay bed just above the CCU, proving that such bed is chronostratigraphically equivalent to the K/Pg boundary clay of the El Kef stratotype. These new micropaleontogical data confirm that the K/Pg impact event and the Chicxulub impact event are the same one. This contradicts the suggestion by others that the Chicxulub impact predated the K/Pg boundary by about 300 ka. © 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
449.
Chesapeake Bay impact structure drilled
Eos,
87
(35)
349-355
2006
ISSN: 00963941
Publisher: American Geophysical Union
Keywords:▾
buried structure; drilling; impact structure; impactite; meteorite, Chesapeake Bay; North America; United States
448.
Central ring structure identified in one of the world's best-preserved impact craters
Geology,
34
(3)
145-148
2006
ISSN: 00917613DOI:10.1130/G22278.1
Keywords:▾
Central ring structure; El'gygytgyn; Impact crater; Seismic reflection; Seismic refraction; Anticline structure; Crystalline target rocks; El'gygytgyn; Five layer models; Impact craters; Sedimentary units; Seismic reflections; Seismic refraction, Crystalline rocks; Geologic models; Geomorphology; Lakes; Sedimentology; Seismic waves; Seismology; Crystalline rocks; Lakes; Morphology; Refraction; Sedimentology; Seismic waves, Structural geology; Seismology, impact structure; seismic reflection; seismic refraction; bedrock; breccia; caldera; crater; crater lake; fill; lacustrine deposit; P-wave; preservation; seismic reflection; seismic refraction, Chukchi; Elgygytgyn Lake; Russian Federation
Abstract: ▾ Seismic refraction and reflection data were acquired in 2000 and 2003 to study the morphology and sedimentary fill of the remote El'gygytgyn crater (Chukotka, northeastern Siberia; diameter 18 km). These data allow a first insight into the deeper structure of this unique impact crater. Wide-angle data from sonobuoys reveal a five-layer model: a water layer, two lacustrine sedimentary units that fill a bowl-shaped apparent crater morphology consisting of an upper layer of fallback breccia with P-wave velocities of ∼3000 m/s, and a lower layer of brecciated bedrock (velocities >3600 m/s). The lowermost layer shows a distinct anticline structure that, by analogy with other terrestrial and lunar craters of similar size, can be interpreted as a central ring structure. The El'gygytgyn crater exhibits a well-expressed morphology that is typical of craters formed in crystalline target rocks. © 2006 Geological Society of America.
447.
Dynamics of explosive volcanism at Unzen volcano: An experimental contribution
Bulletin of Volcanology,
69
(2)
175-187
2006
ISSN: 02588900Keywords:▾
explosive volcanism; fragmentation; lava dome; volcanology, Asia; Eurasia; Far East; Japan; Kyushu; Nagasaki [Kyushu]; Unzen Volcano
Abstract: ▾ Knowledge of the dynamics of magma fragmentation is necessary for a better understanding of the explosive behaviour of silicic volcanoes. Here we have measured the fragmentation speed and the fragmentation threshold of five dacitic samples (6.7-53.5 vol% open porosity) from Unzen volcano, Kyushu, Japan. The measurements were carried out using a shock-tube-based fragmentation apparatus modified after Alidibirov and Dingwell (1996a,b). The results of the experimental work confirm the dominant influence of porosity on fragmentation dynamics. The velocity of the fragmentation front increases and the value of the fragmentation threshold decreases with increasing porosity. Further, we observe that the fragmentation speed is strongly influenced by the initial pressure difference and the texture of the dacite. At an initial pressure difference of 30 MPa, the fragmentation speed varies from 34 m/s for the least porous sample to 100 m/s for the most porous sample. These results are evaluated by applying them to the 1990-1995 eruptive activity of Unzen volcano. Emplacements of layered lava dome lobes, Merapi-type pyroclastic flows and minor explosive events dominated this eruption. The influence of the fragmentation dynamics on dome collapse and Vulcanian events is discussed. © Springer-Verlag 2006.
446.
Cenozoic exhumation and deformation of northeastern Tibet and the Qinling: Is Tibetan lower crustal flow diverging around the Sichuan basin?
Bulletin of the Geological Society of America,
118
(5-6)
651 – 671
2006
ISSN: 00167606DOI:10.1130/B25805.1
Keywords:▾
Asia; China; Eurasia; Far East; Qinling Mountains; Sichuan Basin; Xizang; Deformation; Dynamics; Geochronology; Kinematics; Seismic prospecting; Structural geology; Cenozoic exhumation; Fission track; Plateau growth; Qinling; Tibet; Cenozoic; deformation; exhumation; fission track dating; lower crust; plateau; structural geology; thermochronology; Geological surveys
Abstract: ▾ Apatite fission-track thermochronology data elucidate the cooling/ exhumation history of the Qinling (Qin Mountains), which contain a Paleozoic-Mesozoic orogenic collage north of the Sichuan Basin and northeast of the Tibetan Plateau. In particular, we examine the extent to which the Qinling were affected by the rising plateau. The northern and eastern Qinling show continuous cooling and slow exhumation since the Cretaceous. In contrast, in the southwestern Qinling, rapid cooling initiated at 9-4 Ma, a few million years later than in the eastern Tibetan Plateau. A compilation of major Cenozoic faults in the eastern Tibetan Plateau and the Qinling, and their kinematic and dynamic characterization, shows that deformation in the Qinling has predominantly been strike slip. Active sinistral and dextral strike-slip faults delineate an area of eastward rock flow and bound the area of rapid late Cenozoic cooling outlined by apatite fission-track thermochronology. These data can be interpreted to indicate that lower crustal flow has been diverted around the Longmen Shan and beneath the southwestern Qinling, causing active plateau uplift in this area. Alternatively, northeastern Tibet may be growing eastward faster in the western Qinling than the entire South China Block is extruding to the east. © 2006 Geological Society of America.
445.
Cenozoic deposits of the underwater Akademicheskii Ridge in Lake Baikal
Lithology and Mineral Resources,
41
(4)
303 – 316
2006
ISSN: 16083229Abstract: ▾ This paper presents data on the lithological composition of Cenozoic deposits penetrated for the first time by boreholes BDP-96-1, BDP-96-2, and BDP-98 down to a depth of 600 m on the underwater Akademicheskii Ridge in Lake Baikal. The deposits are subdivided into the upper (Angara) and lower (Barguzin) sequences, which span the Middle Miocene-Holocene period. They formed under different climatic conditions and tectonic settings. Sources of the terrigenous material were also different. Outbursts of diatom-and mineral formation in Lake Baikal can be related to not only climatic fluctuations in the Miocene-Holocene, but also the endogenous activity. By the analogy with the World Ocean, underwater gas-hydrothermal fluid discharge detected at the water-bottom interface in this lake may be accompanied by the formation of diatomaceous oozes and ferromanganese nodule fields and the concentration of rare elements. © Pleiades Publishing, Inc. 2006.